INDIAN CULTURE 1

INDIAN CULTURE

Lecture No. 1

By Alex Brown

1.0 INTRODUCTION

India's complex history and religions are a prerequisite for an appreciation of Indian culture. The culture of India has been one of the world's most powerful civilising forces. Countries like China, Korea, Tibet and Mongolia owe what is best in their own culture, to the inspiration of thoughts imported from India

2.0 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

The very evolution of Indian culture owes to its strategic location, which has therefore conditioned its history. Located in Southern Asia, the Indian peninsula is bordered by the Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal. To the North, the most formidable mountain range in the world, the Himalayas form the border between India and Tibet.

As the prevailing westerly wind bearing moisture from Arabian sea reaches its peak, it looses moisture and is deposited on the peaks as snow. Summer weather causes some of it to melt and form rivers that water the northern plains, making them fertile, resulting in an evolution of civilisation same as that developed along the Nile and Euphrates. Another valid reason for the development of Indian culture and its spread in Central Asia was the development of an international trade route or silk route.

3.0 THE PEOPLE

To the complex geographical situation corresponds an equally complex diversity of ethnic groups as well as of language and religion of the 850 millions (1991) of Indians.

Each district has its own language and custom as well as its own religious ideas and practices. The vast majority of the people are agricultural and, despite large intensively populated cities, most live in small villages.

This factor contributes to the tremendous local variety within the larger religions and why, until the 19th century, the political unity of India has always been incomplete and temporary.

Important kingdoms established a more or less nominal control over weaker principalities. This political splitting is the main obstacle in the study of Indian culture. The Indian subcontinent is nowadays subdivided into states: the Indian Union, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.

4.0 INDIA MAIN HISTORICAL EVENTS (Chronologically)


4.1 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (3000 - 1800 BC)

It was the earliest urban civilisation existing in fill bloom at the end of third millennium BC consisting of three major cities: Kalibangan, Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. Little is known about the Indus civilisation because the Indus script has not yet been deciphered.

 • Advanced urban planning with streets lay in grid, with an efficient drainage system.

• Uniformed buildings built of sun-baked or kiln-fired bricks.

• Larger architectural buildings include public bath, citadel, and granary.

• Artefacts of high quality include seals (similar to earlier or contemporary style in Mesopotamia), pottery figures and miniature versions of utilitarian objects like wheeled carts and vessels.

• Cotton was the main fabric used.

• Materials used for articles and working tools were gold, silver, copper, brass, bone, ivory, shell, stone, bronze and wood, before iron became available in the later centuries.

• Naturalism is seen in reliefs, sculptures, etc with distinctive Semitic and/ or Greek features.

The civilisation to an end sometime around 1800 BC. Its decline is partly due to some specific problems of irrigation and the subsequent abandon of land by its habitants.

4.2 VEDIC ERA (1000 - 500 BC)

Aryans were nomadic people who moved out of the Caucasus mountains between Black and Caspian sea. The Aryans were pre-literate, pre-urban, semi-normadic in the beginning but centuries later gave India several cultural concepts that played a significant role in the development of Indian philosophy, and religion thus effecting Indian art.

A number of its kings during this period were converted to Buddhism by the Buddha himself.

There was a certain amount of Persian influence in the later period due to the conquer of the north-western part of India by the Achaemenian Iran.

4.2.1 THE ARYAN SACRED TEXTS

A new belief system (the concept of religious worship centered upon sacrifices who were the personification of the forces of Nature) and a new language Sanskrit was later introduced to the locals.

The earliest civilization of India is known through the old Aryan, among which:

1. The Rig-Veda contains a great collection of ritual hymns of the gods.

2. The Mahabharata is the epic story of the great war between rivals for the throne of an Aryan state situated in the upper Ganges plain.

3. The Bhagwat Gita is one of the most famous addition to the Mahabharata, which tells of Krishna acting as a counsellor and charioteer of the young Pandava hero warrior Arjuna.

4. The Ramayana is another epic that tells the wandering of banished prince Rama and his faithful wife Sita in treacherous jungles for many years, and Sita is abducted by the king of Lanka. The epic ends with the victory of good over evil. This particular event is related with the celebration of the festival of lights Deepavali.

5. The Brahmanas describes and explains the priestly rituals of sacrifice and reflects the dominant position achieved by the Brahmin class in society.

6. The Upanishad speaks of the nature of reality and the purpose of life and God. Religious worship was centered upon sacrifice to the deities personification of forces of nature.

4.2.2 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Perhaps because of the insecurity felt by the (small number of) Ayrans, the conquering group introduced divisions and rules in Indian society; though this distinction was very much observed only as late as 500 AD:

The Caste System according to Rig Veda (Aryan scripture), the social stratification of the society began in this period. The gigantic man Perusa created four classes or varna of human beings.

From the Top:

• The priests (Brahmins)

• The nobles (kshatriyas)

• The merchants (vaisya)

• The serfs (sudra)

The basis was the type of occupation. Some people whose occupation was degrading, were not a part of the caste system and called "outcast" or "untouchables". Although there were various inequalities in the system but it maintained disciplines in accordance with the caste rules. The caste leaders of each village gave Indian society a stability.

The Joint Family, is the system in which the spouses of all the sons of the patriarch of the family came to live together and raise the children. When the patriarch died ,his authority was transferred to his eldest son though the property was equally divided amongst all his sons. The emphasis was placed on the interest and security of the group rather than individual. Indians have tended to acquire a more passive outlook towards life than their western counterparts.

4.3 MAURYAN DYNASTY (313 - 176 BC)

By about 550 BC, the Ganges has emerged as a productive area with a growing population. The founder of the Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, revolted against the then ruling Nanda dynasty and made PATALIPUTRA his capital.

His grandson, Ashoka (d.232 BC), adopted Buddhism as the state religion when enthroned. He advocated the traditional Indian value of nonviolnce (adopted later by Buddhism) and even sent missionaries out of India (Burma and Java) to spread the teachings of Lord Buddha.

• Stupas or burial mounds were built to enshrine the last possessions and remains of Buddha.

• Memorial pillars (bell-shaped capitals surmounted by one or several animals) associated with the events in the life of Buddha were erected.

• Stone sculptures of Hellenistic style dramatically emerged to become the medium of par excellence of Indian artists.

• Chaitya halls (rock cut caves) as places of worship, and viharas as dwelling place for monks were constructed.

4.4 KUSHAN DYNASTY (100 BC - 200 AD)

The death of Ashoka returned India to its previous warring state and reversed the growing influence of Buddhist culture on the arts in India. In this period there was a slow return to Hindu influences as a source for Indian architecture and sculpture. However, the fields of sculpture and architecture continued their gradual absorption of Buddhist elements (which emphasized on Naturalism) but with an increased influence of the Hindu tradition with its emphasis on abstraction and ideal forms.

Around 100 BC, the Kushans from Khotan from central Asia defeated all and restored much of Indian’s past grandeur.

• The Hellenistic style is evident due to the Northwest influence and also the direct contact still kept with the Hellenic world.

• The introduction of Christianity by Thomas the Apostle.

• The first appearance of the figure Buddha.

4.5 GUPTA DYNASTY (320 550 AD)

It was one of the cultural opulence resulting in an outpouring of science, visual art, music, philosophy and literature. Many refinements are apparent but specially important are the CLASSICAL CANONS aesthetic treatises defined at that time. Thus the Gupta style is one of serene and contemplative countenance in accordance with the idealism of Buddhism and/ or Hinduism, as well as bodily proportion in line with the aesthetic belief of harmony in masses.

The chief characteristics of the imagery included intricacy of actual objects, personal adornment like crown, necklace, bracelet, etc.

4.6 Post Gupta Period (600 - 800 AD)

Hinduism enjoyed a revival in the later years of Gupta Dynasty. It revived the embodiment of divinity in visible form as an object, since it contained within itself at least a spark of divine by virtue of its representation of the divinity.

It was the most creative period for the expression of Hindu ideals of art. The overall sense of the monumental and magnificent contrasted with the simplicity of Buddhist artform. The form of Hindu temple underwent a variety of changes from a simple cube sanctuary with minimal spire and porch to full maturity.

3.7 MUGHAL DYNASTY (1500 1700)

Islam’s armies attacked India as early as 775 AD, but it was in 1527 that Turk Babur finally established the Mughal empire. His grandson, Akbar extended the empire to north and part of central India by 1600.

Mughal rulers in India were amongst the world's most aesthetic-minded rulers. During Akbar’s reign the Persian style was modified by Indian concepts. He synthesised the Moslem faith with Hinduism into a new religion to overcome religious differences in the kingdom. Akbar built a new capital city, Fatehpur Sikri. He employed local Hindu craftsmen and used the traditional Indian corbelling technique, thus blending the two cultures, reflecting his desire to integrate culturally his diverse notions.

Mughal art and architecture in India reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan (1627 -58). He built various mosques, tombs. The elaborate palaces had internal courtyards and pools; which created a micro climate of its own, within the premises. Mughals preferred detailed visual descriptions to the Indian tradition of stylized abstraction. The magnificent Taj Mahal was built by him for his beloved wife. It stands as a poem to glory of the mughal taste and creativity. The Mughal empire maintained its splendour till the reign of Shah Jahan.

After Shah Jahan, his second son, Aurangzeb (1659 - 1707), sat on the throne and after twenty four years of fruitless campaigning in Deccan, the empire slowly crumbled and collapsed. Following his death in 1707 the Mughal empire shrank to the environs of Delhi and soon became a legend.


5.0 INDIAN RELIGIONS

Indian culture is characterised by continuity and eclectic nature of its religious thoughts and practice over 5000 years of living traditions. Religion has dictated all possible realms of life in India, be it education, art, architecture or even the daily chores in the life of an average Indian.

5.1 HINDUISM

Hinduism is probably the most tolerant religion of the world. It is flexible, all¬-encompassing , non exclusive.

• The fundamental reality, the essence of all things, is not something material but spiritual, the World Soul or Brahman. Each individual possesses a soul (atman) which is part of the World Soul.

• The material world is an illusion, the maya, and causes all sufferings. Salvation, or liberation from the maya, can only come through the re-absorption of the individual soul into the World Soul.

• The release from the maya is part of a complicated process of reincarnation. The individual soul must go through a long series of earthly reincarnations (samsara) from one body to another.

• Strictly connected with the doctrine of reincarnation is the law of karma which implies that the consequences of one's actions in life.

• Dharma is the moral religious duties and responsibilities that everybody has to fulfil.

• Bhakti. The way of devotion or worship which requires personal devotion to e beloved god.

Hindus worship a multitude of gods, both male and female. The most popular are:

1. BRAHMAH

The Creator, the Lord of all creatures. He is above and beyond worship and therefore never acquired the popularity of Vishnu and Shiva. In association with Vishnu and Shiva, it forms the Indian Trinity called Trimurti.

2. VISHNU,

The savior who works for the welfare of humanity, able to appear in a number of uman forms (avatars) to save the world including Krishna in the Mahabarata, and Rama, the hero of the Ramayana.

3. SHIVA,

She was a pre Aryan god of fertility, hence why Shiva is often associated with phallic symbols (Lingam or Lir~ga). Shiva personifies the forces of change that both destroys and create. Various animals are connected with Shiva. The most common are the cobra (naga), guardian of the linga, and the bull (nandi), the mount of Shiva, as symbol of strenth and fertility.

4. DEVI,

The Great Goddess, who started as a fertility divinity in ancient times because of the connection between the fertility of the earth and female reproduction, is often referred as 'Mother' ('Mata' in northern India and 'Amman' in the south). Devi is often worshiped in the symbolic form of the yoni, the stylised representation of the female genitals as she is considered the female power of Shiva, the yoni and the lingo are often shown together, the latter rising up out to the former.

While many Hindus choose to devote themselves primarily to one good, they turn to other gods for specific blessings or favours:

5. GANESHA

The elephant headed son of Chive and Parvati, is commonly invoked as a remover of obstacles at the beginning of any undertaking. In parts of northern India, the image of lithe monkey king, Hanuman, inaugurates the establishment of a settlement; he is also the patron of wandering acrobats and wrestlers.

5.2 BUDDHISM

Buddhism is one of the world's great religions that has its deep seated roots in India. It originated with a historical personage, Siddhartha, he was raised a prince in the city of Kapilavastu. At twenty nine, he wandered in the search of the divine truth. He lived as an ascete, in extreme self denial. He meditated under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, until he attained enlightenment. He travelled ,teaching and converting people regardless of caste or creed.

5.2.1 THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF BUDDHISM

According to the teaching of Buddha, every one of us confronts suffering in one form or the other. The root to this cause is desire and it can be ceased by overcoming

desire. Suffering can be ceased by following the path of salvation, which is the Eight fold path evolved by Buddha.

The elements of Eight fold path are:

• Right Knowledge or Understanding

• Right Purpose

• Right Speech

• Right Conduct

• Right Occupation or a livelihood conducive to salvation

• Right Effort

• Right Awareness

• Right Meditation

There are two schools of thought in Buddhism, Hinayana and Mahayana.

1. Hinayana continues the tradition of achieving salvation and enters Nirvana that is a state of super consciousness.

2. Mahayana considers the goals of Hinayana selfish and incomplete, and a saint should postpone his entry to the state of Nirvana for spreading the message given by Buddha.

4.3 JAINISM

The concepts of the religion originated in the Aryan era. The founder Jainism was Mahavira or Great Spirit (599 527B.C.). He was a contemporary of Buddha. The main concepts of the religion are asceticism and sacredness all life. Its chief concepts being ahimsa or non violence. Jains are strictly vegetarian.